However, the Quran clearly states:

Surah An- Nisa ( 4: 1)

“ O mankind ! Fear your Lord , who created you from a single soul ( Adam) and from it created its mate ( Eve) , and from both of them spread out many men and women …”

Darwin’s theory

In 1859, Charles Darwin published the idea of ​​evolution in his book ‘On the Origin of Species’. It states that all animals on earth, including humans, have gradually diversified into many species from a common ancestor. That is, the ancestors of all living things are one or a few simple organisms that have gradually changed into the various species of today. He called this process “Natural Selection”.

Although Darwin’s book does not contain much about human evolution , Darwin discussed human evolution in detail in his 1871  book “The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex” . In this book, he said that humans and modern apes had a common ancestor, from which they evolved in different ways. Like other animals, humans have gradually evolved into improved species through natural selection .

Darwin’s theory of evolution is essentially a well-established fact about the origin of humans all over the world.

The problem at the root of Darwin’s theory

The first thing is – how did life originate on Earth? Darwin was looking for an answer to the question of how simple organisms gradually evolved into complex organisms, but he did not find an answer to the question of how life originated. However, this question is the most important question for humanity. Darwin mainly discussed biological evolution, but did not explain chemical evolution or how various natural elements created life through chemical reactions. Darwin had no idea about the extremely complex structure of cells, because the electron microscope was not invented in his time. The electron microscope was invented in the 1930s , and since then people have started to get an idea about the extremely complex structure of cells.

The answer to how humans originated on Earth must first be found in the origin of the single “cell” that constitutes the structure of humans and the entire animal world. Only if various non-living elements in nature can come together to form a “living” cell can life originate, a process called Abiogenesis in English.

Various experiments on the origin of life-

The first chemical experiment on the origin of life was conducted in 1952 by chemist Stanley Miller. He conducted the experiment under the supervision of physical chemist Harold Clayton Urr, and it is known as the ‘Miller-Urr’ experiment. The experiment was performed at the University of Chicago and published in 1953. Miller wanted to see how the building blocks necessary for life, such as amino acids, could be produced in the primitive environment of Earth.

Scientists believe that in ancient times, the Earth’s atmosphere was probably rich in methane, hydrogen, and ammonia. At that time, there should not have been much oxygen in the Earth’s air, because the first oxygen on Earth was produced mainly by photosynthetic bacteria.

Lightning discharges in the sky, strong solar radiation, and frequent volcanic eruptions caused chemical reactions in the ocean water, which resulted in the emergence of life in the water. Stanley Miller wanted to show scientists this idea through laboratory experiments.

So he designed a closed glass apparatus with a flask and tubes as shown in the picture above. In one part of which he filled methane, hydrogen and ammonia gases as the original atmosphere. And in the other part he kept water. Care was taken that there was no oxygen in the flask, because there was no oxygen in the early Earth. An electric discharge was arranged between the gas chambers through two electrodes and the substances produced in the flask were collected in a jar after cooling and liquefying.

The compound produced through this experiment was later tested and found to contain about 11 types of amino acids (some of which are found in living organisms, such as glycine, alanine, aspartic acid), simple carboxylic acids , hydrocarbons , hydrogen cyanide (HCN) , and formaldehyde (HCHO) — which are considered precursors for life .

Miller’s experiment was a relatively successful initial test of how life originated on Earth, as it made it possible to easily create the basic building blocks of cells. Scientists thought they could create artificial life in the laboratory in a very short time.

But the interesting thing is that almost 73 years have passed since a fairly successful experiment like the Miller-Urey Experiment, but scientists have not really been able to advance much further. Because even if the elements of life can be created artificially in nature, they do not actually form life when combined. Over time, how complex and difficult it is for life to arise alone in nature is gradually being revealed to people.

Before we move on to the next complex discussion, let’s look at the minimum things that are essential for the survival of a functioning, living cell:

• DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid)
• RNA (ribonucleic acid)
• Protein and enzyme (protein and enzyme or catalyst – which is necessary for chemical reactions to occur)
• Lipid Membrane (cell membrane)
• ATP or Energy (energy for cells to function)
• Cellular Metabolism (various chemical reactions occurring within cells)
• Cell Division (creation of new cells through cell division)

1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic blueprint or design of our body. It is located in the nucleus of cells and contains all the genetic information of an organism , such as eye color, blood type, height, etc.

2. DNA itself does not work directly, but rather it produces RNA . RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the messenger of DNA. When a cell needs to make a protein , a specific part of the DNA is copied to form mRNA (messenger RNA). This mRNA goes outside the cell and goes to a place called the ribosome to start protein synthesis .

3. Proteins that are made by arranging amino acids according to the RNA code are responsible for various functions of the body such as digestion, cell formation, disease prevention, enzyme production, etc. That is, DNA is the master plan, RNA is the messenger, and protein is the real worker who implements that plan.

4. And to keep these activities going within the cell, energy is needed. The cell’s ATP supplies this energy.

5. The components of the cell cannot be scattered everywhere, but rather everything in the cell must be together within a membrane or screen, which is called the Lipid Membrane. The components of the cell can only function properly if they are bound in one place.

6. Ultimately, the cell must be able to give rise to more new cells like itself through division and self-replication.

As simple as these aspects of the cell are described, in reality they are actually much more complex.

From the above discussion, it is understood that the cell is like a factory. Where different components come together to perform specific tasks. To perform these tasks, energy (ATP) and enzymes are required.

Now the basic question is: how did life begin on Earth? It is not possible that all the parts of a cell were already present on Earth and then simply joined together to form a primitive cell. Rather, the formation of a viable cell would have had to occur gradually through a process that is still unknown today. That is why scientists have proposed various hypotheses.

There are several hypotheses about how the process of life began on primitive Earth:

1. Some scientists believe that since information is needed to perform specific functions of cells, genetic material, i.e. nucleic acid or RNA, was first produced.

2. Some people think that proteins were created first. Because proteins act as catalysts in cells and without the help of proteins, DNA and RNA replication or division cannot occur.

3. Some say that the cell membrane was formed first, because the components of the cell can only function if they are bound together within the cell membrane.

4. According to some, metabolism or chemical reactions began first to sustain life. Because various types of chemical elements and energy are needed to form cells.

To be honest, scientists are not sure how life began on Earth. There is much debate about which of the first cells—DNA, RNA, proteins, enzymes, ribosomes, or cell membranes—started the creation of the first cell. Some say that RNA had to be made first, because DNA contains all the genetic information of the cell. Others say that enzymes had to be made before DNA because enzymes are the only way DNA and RNA can function properly. But enzymes are proteins. The job of DNA and RNA is to make proteins. As a result, it is impossible for proteins or enzymes to be made before DNA or RNA. This creates a “chicken-and-egg” problem. Moreover, no one has a clear idea of ​​how genetic information can be incorporated into DNA or RNA.

 

The most discussed and popular of these hypotheses is the RNA World Hypothesis..

What is the RNA World Hypothesis?

• According to this idea, RNA was formed first on the primitive Earth , because RNA can store genetic information and can itself cause chemical reactions, that is, it can act as an enzyme. Genetic information and enzymes are needed for the development of life from the very beginning. These two features are found together in RNA. Then, protein and DNA were gradually formed from RNA. Currently, the RNA world hypothesis is one of the main theories of abiogenesis, according to this idea, RNA was formed first .
• Possible sequence:
  RNA → Protein → DNA → Cell membrane → Whole cell

But it is almost impossible for RNA to form on the primitive Earth.

Here is a series of discussions on why it is impossible for RNA to be produced alone:

RNA is basically made up of three types of components – 1. Ribose sugar, 2. Phosphate and 3. Nucleobase. Ribose sugar and phosphate form a curved backbone to which 4 types of nucleobases are attached.

Ribose sugar, which is essential for RNA, is almost impossible to produce.

A special sugar called Ribose is essential for the formation of RNA (ribonucleic acid) . But could this Ribose have been easily produced on the primitive Earth? The answer is, no . Ribose is a very unstable and rare sugar, which is almost impossible to produce and survive naturally. Here we will understand this matter simply-

How is ribose sugar made?

Scientists have found that ribose can be produced in nature through a chemical reaction called the Formose reaction , which uses a simple molecule called Formaldehyde . But the problem is that the Formose reaction produces many different types of sugars (such as Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone, Glucose, Mannose, Fructose, Ribose, etc.). The amount of ribose produced is very small. The amount of ribose in this reaction is less than 1% , which is mixed with other sugars. That is, less than 1 in 100 molecules is ribose. Scientists have studied in the laboratory that this small amount of ribose mixed in various mixtures will never produce RNA, the ribose sugar must be completely separated from the other sugars. [1]

Complexity in ribose production and survival-

1. Many sugars are formed together : In the Formose reaction, many other isomers (similar molecules) are formed in addition to Ribose. As a result, Ribose cannot be isolated. It is naturally impossible to select only Ribose from this mixture.
2. Rapidly Destructive : Ribose breaks down very quickly in alkaline environments (pH > 9). Ribose is destroyed within minutes to hours in environments such as heat (30–80°C), water, or UV light.
3. Impossible to separate : In the Formose reaction, Ribose is mixed with other sugars. It is not possible to separate it without modern equipment. There was no natural process in the primitive world that could separate Ribose.

Conditions required for the production of Ribose Sugar

The conditions required for the production of ribose are:

Conditions	Requirements
Alkaline pH (>9)	To start the reaction
Catalyst (Ca(OH)₂ or mineral)	Helpful for reaction
Warmth (30–80°C)	To speed up the reaction

Problem :

• Finding these conditions together and correctly is a very difficult task on the primitive Earth.
• Even if ribose is produced, it will be destroyed before it can be used to form RNA.

Conclusion

Ribose is a key component of RNA, but its production and stability on the primitive Earth are almost impossible. Its quantities are very small, it is rapidly degraded, and it is extremely difficult to isolate. For this reason, scientists believe that the formation of RNA from ribose on the prehistoric Earth is a major mystery.

The question arises : If ribose was so difficult to make, how did RNA come about? Scientists are still researching to find the answer to this question.

Reference– Shapiro, R. (1988). Prebiotic ribose synthesis: A critical analysis.
Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere, 18(1), 71–85.

Benner, S. A., Kim, H.-J., & Ricardo, A. (2010). Planetary organic chemistry and the origins of biomolecules.

Phosphate on early Earth: Essential for RNA but nearly impossible to produce

Another important three elements for the formation of RNA and DNA are phosphates .

Phosphate is a chemical ion with the symbol PO₄³⁻ . It carries three negative charges and combines with sugars to form the basic structure, or “backbone,” of RNA and DNA . Without this structure, RNA or DNA cannot be made.

Why is it difficult to produce phosphate?

1. Phosphate is very rare in nature : Phosphate is usually bound in soil or minerals, such as rocks or stones. In its free state (i.e. dissolved in water), phosphate is found in very small amounts, which is not enough to make RNA.
2. Phosphate is not easily reactive : Phosphate is a stable and negatively charged ion, which means it does not easily combine with sugars or bases. It requires enzymes or external energy to react , which was not available on the primitive Earth.
3. Phosphate precipitates in water : Phosphate does not dissolve in water but forms a precipitate , meaning it separates and settles to the bottom. As a result, phosphate cannot participate in chemical reactions.

Why are these big problems?

To make RNA, a unit called a nucleotide is required, which is made up of these three: Nucleotide = Sugar + Base + Phosphate

If phosphate is not present in the environment or if it is present but does not react, then nucleotides will not be formed. As a result, the formation of RNA or DNA will not be possible. In addition, energy input is required to make phosphate reactive, but the source of this energy on the early Earth is still unclear.

So the question is…

How did phosphate combine with sugars and bases to form complex molecules like RNA on Earth, where there were no enzymes or energy sources (such as ATP)? This is a major question in the theory of abiogenesis , or the spontaneous origin of life.

Conclusion

Phosphate is an essential element for RNA and DNA, but it is very rare in nature and very inactive in terms of reactivity. Its availability and limited ability to participate in chemical reactions make RNA formation almost impossible in the prehistoric world. This problem remains a major challenge for scientists, which is important in solving the mystery of the origin of life.

Reference: Gull, M., Mojzsis, S. J., & Bada, J. L. (2014). On the prebiotic availability of phosphate.

The four bases of RNA in the primitive world: Adenine and Guanine are easy, but Cytosine and Uracil are extremely difficult.

The four main nucleobases of RNA are Adenine (A) , Guanine (G) , Cytosine (C) , and Uracil (U) . Scientists are studying how these bases were formed in the prehistoric world. But it turns out that Adenine and Guanine are relatively easy to make, but Cytosine and Uracil are much more complicated.

Adenine and Guanine: Easily produced

Scientists have found that adenine and guanine were relatively easy to form in the environment of prehistoric Earth. These two bases could have formed naturally through chemical reactions. They have also been found in meteorites (such as the Murchison meteorite), which suggests that they were common in primitive environments.

Cytosine and Uracil: Why so complicated?

Cytosine and Uracil are very difficult to make. Cytosine in particular has a big problem. Let’s see why:

The problem with Cytosine

1. Difficult to form : The chemical reactions required to make cytosine require very pure and concentrated chemicals, which are difficult to obtain on the primitive Earth. For example:
   1. Cyanoacetylene + Urea
   1. Cyanoacetaldehyde + Ammonia The yield in these reactions is very low, less than 1%. In addition, many unnecessary side reactions occur.
2. Unstable in water : Cytosine breaks down easily in water. It undergoes chemical changes and is converted into Uracil and Ammonia.
   1. Its half-life at 25°C is only 17 days .
   1. At a temperature of 37°C, it decreases to 14 days .
   1. Even in cold environments (0°C), it survives for a maximum of 17,000 years , which is very short compared to geological time.
3. Environmental Challenges : Cytosine is rapidly destroyed by UV light, heat, water, or acidic environments. It is destroyed in an instant in high-temperature places like volcanoes. That is why scientists call cytosine a “ transient molecule.”
4. No evidence : While Adenine, Guanine, and even Uracil and Thymine have been found in meteorites, there is no trace of Cytosine. This could mean that Cytosine was either not formed at all, or that it was rapidly destroyed if it was formed.

In the case of Uracil

Uracil also has some of the same problems as Cytosine, but it is relatively stable. Uracil has been found in meteorites, which suggests that it could have formed in a primitive environment. However, its formation process is also complex.

Conclusion

Because of the instability and complexity of Cytosine and Uracil, scientists believe that the process of making RNA in the prehistoric world may have been different from what we think. Some scientists also believe that ancient RNA did not contain Cytosine, or that it was replaced by a different molecule. Research is still ongoing to solve this mystery.

📌 The bottom line : Adenine and Guanine are easy to make, but the complexity of Cytosine and Uracil raises big questions about the origin of RNA on the early Earth. Scientists are looking for answers to these questions, which are important for understanding the origin of our life.

Reference: Robertson, M. P., & Miller, S. L. (1995). An efficient prebiotic synthesis of cytosine and uracil.

RNA instability poses major challenge to the origin of life

Let’s assume that, by some unknown process, sugar, phosphate molecules, and nucleic acids were combined to form RNA molecules. But there was still a big problem. Research has shown that RNA is extremely unstable and almost impossible to survive in the harsh environment of that time.

Even if RNA had somehow been created on the primitive Earth, could it have survived?

RNA is a very unstable molecule. In the early Earth’s environment, it would have broken down quickly due to heat, light, water, or chemicals. The ribose sugar of RNA has an extra –OH (hydroxyl) group, called 2′-OH . This 2′-OH group makes RNA very reactive or unstable . In normal natural environments, RNA particles can survive for a very short time. Below is a chart showing the half-life of RNA in different environments:

🧪 Environment	⏳Half life of RNA	💬 Comments
Room temperature (25°C), neutral pH	A few hours to a few days	Without enzymes, it decays quickly.
In the presence of RNase (natural enzyme)	Seconds to minutes	RNase is everywhere, destroying RNA quickly
High temperature (60–80°C)	Seconds to hours	RNA would have been easily destroyed by the heat of the early Earth
Alkaline environment (pH > 8)	Minutes to hours	The backbone of RNA breaks down
Acidic environment (pH < 5)	Very fast	Glycosidic bonds are broken.
Exposure to UV rays	Immediate damage	RNA bases break or undergo chemical changes

The bottom line : Even if RNA were produced in the harsh environments of the prehistoric Earth (heat, UV light, acidic or alkaline conditions), it would have been destroyed very quickly. As a result, it is unlikely to survive for long.

RNA replication (Self-replication) problem

The RNA World Hypothesis suggests that RNA could make copies of itself, which was important for the beginning of life. But there are several problems with this idea:

1. Ability to copy itself : Currently, scientists have not found any RNA molecule that can copy itself completely and accurately. Self -replication requires enzymes or catalysts , which are unknown to exist in the prehistoric world.
2. Impossible without enzymes : It is extremely difficult, almost impossible, to replicate RNA without enzymes or other helper molecules. There was no natural process on the primitive Earth that could have helped with this task.

Conclusion : The ability of RNA to self-replicate is only possible in theory, in practice it is very questionable.

Conclusion

Even if RNA were created, it would have been nearly impossible to survive in the harsh environment of the prehistoric world. RNA would have been quickly destroyed by heat, light, or chemicals. In addition, RNA could not make copies of itself without the enzymes or catalysts necessary for self-replication. For this reason, the RNA World Hypothesis , which considers RNA to be the first molecule of life, faces many scientific questions.

In short, while the RNA world hypothesis is a strong theory for the origin of life, it has not yet been fully proven due to its chemical complexity, instability, and other limitations. Scientists are continuing to work to resolve these issues.

Reference: Bernhardt, H. S. (2012). The RNA world hypothesis: the worst theory of the early evolution of life (except for all the others).

Many more problems

• Bonding problem : It is not possible to naturally join RNA nucleotides into long chains in water, because water destroys these bonds (causes hydrolysis).

🧪 2. Homochirality problem

• Just as humans have a right and left hand, chemicals also have a right and left hand. This is called homochirality. Sugars have right-handed sugars and left-handed sugars. Research has shown that only D-ribose is needed to form RNA. If both D and L types of ribose are present: RNA chains are not formed correctly. Base pairing and structure are lost. Many ribozymes cannot function. Effective RNA is not produced from racemic mixtures — homochirality is necessary. The question is, there was no machine on the primitive earth to separate these sugars, so how did the sugars separate?
• Similarly, there are right-handed and left-handed amino acids , but natural proteins are made up of only L-amino acids .
• (the sugar used in RNA) and amino acids both have two types of chirality :
  • D-form (right-handed)
  • L-shape (left-handed)

🧬RNA and DNA only use D-ribose .

⚠️But so far, no effective homochirality mechanism for D-ribose has been conclusively demonstrated in any natural environment. Without homochirality , effective RNA formation is not possible. And without RNA , the RNA World Hypothesis (a popular theory of the origin of life) does not work.

There is no geological or fossil evidence.

• There is no direct fossil evidence for RNA World —no ancient RNA-based life has been found. All living things today use DNA and proteins; RNA-based life is just a hypothesis.
• Moreover, laboratory experiments that attempt to prove the RNA World Hypothesis use various pure chemicals that are not found in nature. These reactions do not occur without human intervention and a controlled environment, which contradicts the idea of ​​natural or spontaneous origin of life.

From the above long discussion, we can see how complicated it is for RNA particles to arise naturally on Earth, yet modern scientists generally agree that for life to begin, at least RNA particles must first arise and from there, other components of the cell may arise in stages. They are continuing this effort by spending billions of dollars in modern laboratories. But no real success has been achieved. Several scientists who have been researching Abiogenesis for a long time have acknowledged this issue, notable among them are Professor James Tour , Nobel laureate scientist from Harvard University – Jack Szostak , John Sutherland from Cambridge University and many others. Professor James Tour has actually challenged other scientists that no one can prove the process of Abiogenesis.

The videos below will help readers understand this topic in depth:

Origin of life Challenge RESULTS.

Addressing abiogenesis.

The origin of life has never been explained.

 

📚Scientific formula

·  Reference:

Benner, SA, Kim, H.-J., & Yang, Z. (2010).
“Setting the Stage: The History, Chemistry, and Geobiology Behind RNA.”
Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 2(10): a003541.
https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a003541

Li & Breaker (1999) : “RNA degradation kinetics” — RNA rapidly degrades in alkaline conditions, breaking down within minutes.
📖Reference: Li, Y., & Breaker, RR (1999). Kinetics of RNA degradation by specific base catalysis of transesterification involving the 2′-hydroxyl group. Chemistry & Biology, 6(10), 793–803.

·  Powner et al. (2009, Nature) : Certain ribonucleotide components can be synthesized under prebiotic conditions, but the assembly of these into full RNA strands remains unresolved.
📖Reference: Powner, MW, Gerland, B., & Sutherland, JD (2009). Synthesis of activated pyrimidine ribonucleotides in prebiotically plausible conditions. Nature, 459(7244), 239–242.

·  Joyce & Orgel (1993) : From a prebiotic chemist’s perspective, the formation of RNA is described as a “prebiotic chemist’s nightmare.”
📖Reference: Joyce, GF, & Orgel, LE (1993). Prospects for understanding the origin of the RNA world. In The RNA World (eds. Gesteland, RF & Atkins, JF), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.

The Messy Alkaline Formose Reaction and Its Link to Metabolism